Sustainable Foraging Ethics

Principles of Sustainable Foraging

Take only what you need

• Don’t collect beyond your reasonable needs
• Harvest no more than one third of the fruiting bodies from any one spot — leave the rest for spore dispersal
• Leave young specimens with closed caps — they haven’t released their spores yet
• Prefer mature mushrooms with open caps — they have already dispersed some of their spores

Leave the forest as you found it

A Portuguese tradition: “deixar a floresta como a encontrou” (leave the forest as you found it).

• Don’t disturb the leaf litter (caruma, folhada) — it protects the mycelium
• Never use rakes or hoes — banned by all official guidelines (DGADR, ICNF)
• Walk on existing paths — minimise trampling
• Don’t destroy dead wood — saprotrophic fungi depend on it

Cut or Pull?

This classic debate among foragers has been settled by science.

Swiss study (33 years of observations):

• Systematic harvesting does not reduce future yields or species diversity — regardless of method (cutting or pulling)
• Plots where mushrooms were pulled showed even slightly higher productivity than controls
• Trampling is the real problem: it reduces fruiting body numbers by ~30%

Practical recommendations:

• For identification: dig up the whole mushroom (including the base) — to see the volva in Amanita
• For minimal impact: cut with a knife — less soil disturbance
• The main thing — don’t trample the mycelium: don’t stand in one spot

Impact of Over-Harvesting

Ecological consequences

Fungi are a key link in the ecosystem:

• Mycorrhizal fungi provide nutrition to trees
• Saprotrophs decompose organic matter and return nutrients to the soil
• Changes in fungal populations affect food chains and nutrient cycling

The situation in Portugal

Quercus (Portugal’s largest environmental organisation) warns that uncontrolled mushroom harvesting threatens the populations of certain species. A significant proportion of collected mushrooms is exported to Italy, France and Spain.

The real threat is not so much the harvesting of fruiting bodies itself, but the collateral damage:

• Trampling of leaf litter
• Destruction of the soil layer
• Use of rakes and hoes

Portuguese Guidelines and Standards

“Manual de Boas Práticas” (DGADR)

Published by DGADR together with ICNF under the project “Promover os Recursos Micológicos”. Key rules:

1. Do not use tools that remove the surface layer of soil
2. Do not collect mushrooms with closed caps — let them release their spores
3. Avoid collecting in polluted zones (near roads, industrial sites, farms)
4. Return mushroom trimmings to the forest
5. Use wicker baskets — not plastic bags
6. Keep one specimen of each species in case of poisoning

More: Forager’s equipment

CCRES

Centro de Competências dos Recursos Silvestres publishes detailed guidelines at ccres.pt.

Educational Programmes

Habitat Protection

• Don’t disturb the leaf litter — mycelium lives in the top centimetres of soil
• Walk on paths — trampling reduces yields by 30% (proven fact)
• Don’t collect in polluted zones — mushrooms accumulate heavy metals and toxins
• Don’t destroy dead wood — saprotrophic fungi depend on their substrate

The Ethics of Mushroom Spots

Foragers worldwide are reluctant to share the coordinates of their productive spots. This is a reasonable practice:

• Share general knowledge — habitat types, seasons, species
• Don’t reveal exact coordinates — especially online
• Teach people how to look, not where — this is the sustainable approach

Climate and the Future

Climate change is affecting fungi across Europe:

• The fruiting season is lengthening — mushrooms start fruiting earlier and finish later
• Mediterranean saprotrophs and pine mycorrhizal fungi are delaying autumn fruiting by 19–32 days due to extended summer drought
• For Portugal, increasing drought poses a particular risk to mycorrhizal networks in montado and pine forests

European Standards

European Charter on Fungi-Gathering and Biodiversity (2013)

Recommendation No. 168 of the Council of Europe:

• Recognises sustainable mushroom foraging as a legitimate use of resources
• Defines principles of sustainable harvesting
• Developed with the participation of ECCF (European Council for Conservation of Fungi) and IUCN

The “Fauna Flora Funga” Initiative

Promotes equal legal status for fungi alongside animals and plants. Fungi are too often overlooked in conservation legislation.

Sources

1. DGADR — Manual de Boas Práticas de Colheita e Consumo de Cogumelos Silvestres
2. CCRES — Boas Práticas de Recolha (ccres.pt)
3. Quercus — “Apelo à regulamentação da produção, recoleção e comercialização de cogumelos silvestres” (2021)
4. Egli et al. — “Mushroom picking does not impair future harvests” (Conservation Biology, 2006)
5. Kauserud et al. — “Warming-induced shift in European mushroom fruiting phenology” (PNAS, 2012)
6. Council of Europe — Recommendation No. 168 (2013): European Charter on Fungi-Gathering and Biodiversity
7. ECCF — Guidance for Conservation of Macrofungi in Europe